Authors: Akwasi Afrane Bediako & Raymond Ohene Gyan
Affiliation: Faculty of Biosciences, University for Development Studies, Ghana
Date: 17 September 2025
SUMMARY: Fluorinated plastics used in plastic products, including per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, have surfaced as important topics in environmental science and public health due to their resilience in the environment, bioaccumulation, and possible carcinogenic effects. Such chemicals are widely used in non-stick cookware, food packaging, water-repellent apparel, and industrial purposes, hence reaching the human body by way of cooking heated meals using plastics laden with fluorine, inhaling particulate contaminants, and skin exposure to treated products. When absorbed, these chemicals interfere with biological processes through DNA damage, interference with hormone signaling, suppression of immune responses, and alteration of metabolic processes, including pathways associated with oncogenesis. This review discusses the role of fluorinated plastics in cancer, synthesizes evidence available in the scientific literature, and emphasizes the need for safer alternative chemicals for safeguarding human health.
Introduction
Plastics are today a part of modern life, and their applications range from a wide variety of household articles, packaging, and medical devices. One of the most important advances in plastics chemistry is the introduction of fluorine-containing materials, including perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances, and fluoropolymers like polytetrafluoroethylene (Maerten, 2024). They are valued for their chemical resistance, heat stability, and water repellency, which are also the reasons they are indispensable in a variety of industrial and commercial uses. The same properties that render them more useful, however, are the reasons why they are environmentally persistent, because they are difficult to break down once released into the environment (Raylman, 1995).
Among the many fluorinated chemicals, perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances have been of major concern because they are toxic and bioaccumulate in both humans and wildlife. These chemicals have been referred to as “forever chemicals” because they do not naturally break down. They have also been ubiquitously found in drinking water, food packaging, soil, and in the blood of humans. The last two decades have seen scientific studies increasingly associate exposure to perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances with severe health impacts, including several types of cancers (Fenton, 2021).
Human Exposure and Bioaccumulation
Humans are exposed to fluorinated chemicals through various primary and secondary pathways, with ingestion being the most significant pathway. Contaminated food and tap water are major contributors to dietary exposure to polyfluoroalkyl substances. Research has revealed ubiquitous consumer items such as microwave popcorn boxes, fast food containers, and fluorinated-coated food containers to be major contributors to this form of exposure. In addition to ingestion, indoor exposure is also a significant contributor to human exposure. Polyfluoroalkyl substances have been detected in household dust and indoor air, particularly in homes with stain-resistant carpets, water-repellent furniture, or other fluorinated domestic consumer products (Kim, 2021).
Other notable pathways for exposure include inhalation of airborne fluorinated chemicals and dermal contact with treated products such as waterproofing equipment, cosmetics, and medical devices. Occupation is even more hazardous, especially among individuals who work within chemical production plants, fire departments, or companies that use fluoropolymer-based products. Once introduced into the human body, polyfluoroalkyl substances bind readily to blood proteins and redistribute to organs, including the liver and kidneys. Unlike the majority of environmental pollutants that are metabolized and eliminated rapidly, these compounds resist biodegradation to a very large extent and are eliminated slowly. For instance, the half-life of perfluorooctanoic acid in human serum ranges from three to eight years. This prolonged retention leads to bioaccumulation, producing an extended internal burden that has been associated with increased risk for chronic illness, including some types of cancer (Li, 2022).
Case Study
In 2005, the Environmental Protection Agency fined chemical giant DuPont a record $16.5 million over its decades-long cover-up of the health hazards of C8, also known as PFOA. One of a family of perfluorinated chemicals, or PFCs, PFOA was a key ingredient in making Teflon, the non-stick, waterproof, stain-resistant “miracle of modern chemistry” used in thousands of household products.
DuPont had long known that PFOA caused cancer, had poisoned drinking water in the mid-Ohio River Valley, and polluted the blood of people and animals worldwide. But it never told its workers, local officials and residents, state regulators, or the EPA. Eventually, research by federal officials, EWG, and other public interest groups found that the blood of almost all Americans was contaminated with PFCs. And in 2006, the EPA confirmed that PFOA is a probable human carcinogen.
Carcinogenic Mechanisms of Fluorinated Compounds
The tumorigenicity of fluorinated compounds, particularly polyfluoroalkyl compounds, has become increasingly a subject of scientific interest since they have the potential to disrupt essential cellular activities in growth regulation, DNA repair, and apoptosis mechanisms pivotal for cancer development. One of the predominant mechanisms of action involves genotoxicity that can be mediated by direct DNA interaction or indirectly via oxidative stress. These encompass perfluorooctanoic acid and perfluorooctane sulfonate, which have been shown to induce the production of reactive oxygen species that initiate damage to DNA, proteins, and lipids, and mutations that are capable of provoking the initiation of tumors. These chemicals have also been shown to be endocrine disruptors as they are capable of mimicking or blocking natural hormones, influencing hormone receptor activity, and altering gene expression in hormone-sensitive tissues. In relation to breast, thyroid, and prostate cancers, where hormone signaling plays a central role in disease pathogenesis (Jane, 2022).
Apart from the harmful chemicals inducing the human genetic and hormonal disarray, fluorinated substances have been reported to suppress immune response and interdict metabolic control. They induce long-term or chronic inflammation, which has been identified as a tumor promoter through mechanisms such as DNA damage, angiogenesis, and immunosuppression. Polyfluoroalkyl compounds can suppress natural killer cell activity and alter cytokine production, rendering the body susceptible to precancerous and malignant cells (Dhore, 2021).
Moreover, these chemicals are peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor activators, particularly in liver tissue, and they induce lipid metabolism and cellular proliferation changes. Animal studies have linked such activity with liver tumor promotion, and, although there are interspecies variations, corresponding gene expression changes in human liver cells are a cause for concern. Together, these mechanisms of genotoxicity, endocrine disruption, immune suppression, and metabolic reprogramming capture the subtle and additive ways in which chronic exposure to fluorinated compounds potentially facilitates cancer induction in humans (Domingo, 2019).
Conclusion
Fluorinated chemicals used in plastics are a significant, though often neglected, source of cancer risk. Because they are so widely used in industrial products, they are chemically inert and persist in the environment and human body for years, and they can potentially make lasting contributions to public health. The growing body of scientific data linking the chemicals to numerous forms of cancer means that an expansive response is critically warranted. The fight against this threat requires concerted effort from policymakers, regulatory agencies, captains of industry, and the scientific community. As the world moves incrementally towards cleaner practice, the setting of priorities for alternatives that are safer to use and the strict enforcement of rigorous regulation regimes will be central to curbing exposure, cancer incidence, and safeguarding global health.
Conflict of Interest
The author declares no commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
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